大乘佛教资料

袁一文

Core Illustrated Materials on Mahayana Buddhism

I. Basic Understanding of Mahayana Buddhism

Definition: Mahayana, meaning "the Great Vehicle", takes as its core purpose liberating all sentient beings from suffering and attaining Buddhahood. It differs from Theravada Buddhism, which focuses more on personal liberation.

Origin: Emerged in India around the 1st century CE, later spread to China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, etc., and became the main form of Chinese Buddhism.

Core Ideals: Benefiting oneself and others, enlightening oneself and others; advocating the Bodhisattva Path, striving for full Buddhahood rather than only Arhatship.

II. Core Doctrines

- Six Paramitas (Perfections)
Giving, ethics, patience, diligence, meditation, wisdom — the six fundamental practices of Bodhisattvas.

- All Beings Possess Buddha-Nature
All sentient beings inherently have the potential to become Buddhas and can attain enlightenment through practice.

- Compassionate Liberation
Not stopping at personal liberation, but aspiring to save infinite beings.

- Teaching of Emptiness (Sunyata)
All phenomena arise from dependent origination; nothing has a fixed, independent self-nature.

III. Major Scriptures

- Diamond Sutra, Heart Sutra

- Lotus Sutra, Avatamsaka Sutra (Flower Garland Sutra)

- Shurangama Sutra, Vimalakirti Sutra

- Amitabha Sutra (core of Pure Land School)

IV. Major Schools (Chinese Mahayana)

- Chan (Zen): Not relying on words, pointing directly to the mind; seeing one’s nature and becoming Buddha.

- Pure Land: Reciting the Buddha’s name to be reborn in the Western Pure Land.

- Tiantai: Centered on the Lotus Sutra, with a complete doctrinal classification system.

- Huayan (Avatamsaka): Explaining the interdependence of the Dharma Realm and perfect harmony of all things.

- Weishi (Consciousness-Only): Analyzing that all phenomena are only manifestations of consciousness.

V. Symbolic Elements of Mahayana Buddhism

- Lotus: Symbolizes purity and Buddha-nature, unstained by the mud.

- Guanyin Bodhisattva (Avalokiteśvara): Great compassion, saving beings from suffering.

- Maitreya Bodhisattva: The future Buddha, symbolizing kindness and hope.

- Swastika: Auspicious symbol representing the wisdom and virtue of the Buddha.

- Bodhidharma: First patriarch of Chan Buddhism, symbolizing sudden enlightenment.

袁一文

资料来源：1. Encyclopedia Britannica (大英百科全书)

- Mahayana Buddhism: core tenets, origin, scriptures, schools

2. Encyclopedia of Buddhism (宗教百科)

- Mahayana sutras, Bodhisattva path, Sunyata, Buddha-nature

3. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (普林斯顿佛教辞典)

袁一文

Buduruwagala: The Rock of Buddhist Sculptures

Buduruwagala (which literally translates to "rock with Buddha statues") is an ancient temple complex located in the Uva Province near Wellawaya. It is the most important surviving site of Mahayana Buddhist art in Sri Lanka and features seven magnificent rock-cut figures dating back to the 9th or 10th century .

Historical Context
The sculptures are believed to date from a period when Mahayana Buddhism, including Tantric influences, enjoyed a brief but significant heyday in Sri Lanka. This influence is particularly evidenced by iconographic details found among the carvings .

The Central Figures
The main attraction is a colossal 15-meter (51-foot) standing Buddha statue—the tallest in Sri Lanka, surpassing the famous statues at Aukana and Maligawila .

· Posture: The Buddha is depicted in the Abhaya Mudra (the posture of "kindness and freedom from fear"), with the right hand raised, palm facing outward.
· Artistic Details: The statue still bears traces of its original stucco robe and an orange streak suggests it was once brightly painted. Above the figures, square-cut holes in the rock indicate that these statues were originally protected by a canopy .

The Flanking Figures (The Mahayana Pantheon)
The giant Buddha is flanked by six figures (three on each side) representing the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon.

The Right Side (Avalokitesvara and Attendants)
The group on the Buddha's right is centered on Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion:

· Avalokitesvara: The central figure is almost entirely white. His crown features a small figure of the Buddha Amitabha in meditation.
· Tara (Tara Devi): To the left of Avalokitesvara stands the female deity Aryathara, believed to protect against natural disasters and watch over children.
· Prince Sudhana: To the right is Prince Sudhana, depicted in the "thrice-bent" posture (Tribhanga), known for guiding the young towards good behavior .

The Left Side (Maitreya and Vajrapani)
The group on the Buddha's left features the future Buddha and a Tantric guardian:

· Maitreya Bodhisattva: The central figure is elaborately ornamented and represents the future Buddha.
· Vajrapani: This figure is iconographically significant as he holds a Vajra (an hourglass-shaped thunderbolt symbol or Dorje). This is a distinctly Tantric symbol, helping scholars date these sculptures to the 10th century Mahayana period .
· Sahampath Brahma (or Vishnu): The figure on the right is likely Sahampath Brahma or Vishnu .

Academic Resources

For more in-depth academic study, the following resources are recommended:

· "The Mahāyāna Buddhist sculpture of Ceylon" by Diran Kavork Dohanian (1977). This book is the definitive scholarly work on the subject, originally a Harvard thesis from 1964. It covers the iconography and historical context of these sculptures in detail .
· "The Ṭämpiṭavihāras of Sri Lanka" by Kapila Silva and Dhammika Chandrasekara (2021). While focusing on elevated image-houses, this work provides broader context on Buddhist architecture and relic veneration in Sri Lanka .

Key Identifying Features

· Location: Buduruwagala, Wellawaya (accessible via the Tanamalwila road) .
· Period: Approximately 9th to 10th Century CE .
· Tradition: Mahayana Buddhism with Tantric influences .
· Significance: Home to the tallest Buddha statue in Sri Lanka and the only major site where the Vajrapani is depicted holding the Tibetan Dorje .

袁一文

The Spread of Mahayana Buddhism: A Comprehensive Overview

Mahayana Buddhism emerged in India around the 1st century CE and developed into one of the three major branches of Buddhism, alongside Theravada and Vajrayana. Today, it remains the largest Buddhist tradition, with approximately 53% of Buddhist practitioners worldwide identifying as Mahayana Buddhists (compared to 36% for Theravada and 6% for Vajrayana as of 2010).

Origins and Early Development

Mahayana Buddhism arose within the context of Indian Buddhism, developing from earlier Buddhist schools possibly including the Mahasanghika tradition, though this claim has been challenged by scholars. The movement initially had a small following in India but would eventually gain long-term historical significance.

The Mahayana tradition introduced distinctive doctrines and practices centered on the Bodhisattva path—seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called the Bodhisattvayana or "Bodhisattva Vehicle". Unlike earlier Buddhist schools that emphasized individual liberation (Arhatship), Mahayana teachings encouraged practitioners to postpone their own final enlightenment in order to help all beings achieve liberation.

Key Mahayana scriptures, such as the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, were composed between approximately 50 BCE and 600 CE, with the Lotus Sutra written down around 200 CE. These texts introduced revolutionary concepts including:

· Sunyata (Emptiness) - The idea that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence
· Tathagatagarbha (Buddha-nature) - The potential for enlightenment inherent in all beings
· The Bodhisattva ideal - The vow to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings

Major Transmission Routes

The spread of Mahayana Buddhism followed two major routes from India: the northern overland route through Central Asia and the maritime route across the Indian Ocean to Southeast and East Asia.

The Northern Route: India to Central Asia and East Asia

The Silk Road Transmission

Buddhist monks began traveling the Silk Road as early as the 1st century CE, bringing Mahayana teachings to China. The Chinese Empire had extended its frontiers into Central Asia during the first century BCE, facilitating cultural and religious exchange along these trade routes.

Emperor Mingdi (reigned 57/58-75/76 CE) is traditionally credited as a devotee of Buddhism who sent emissaries to India in search of Buddhist texts. Buddhist missionaries were active in China from the mid-first century CE, initially translating Shravakayana (Hinayana) texts. Toward the end of this century, the first translations of Mahayana texts into Chinese were made by the translator Lokashema—these remain the oldest known editions of Mahayana literature.

Key Translators and Their Impact

The transmission of Mahayana Buddhism to China depended heavily on translators from Central Asia:

· Dharmaraksa (3rd-4th century CE) - A Yuezhi (Kushan) translator whose work was crucial for understanding the origin of Mahayana texts in Chinese translation. His translations reflect the influence of Central Asian Buddhist thought on early Chinese Buddhism. Scholars suggest that Mahayana texts may be "records of a living religious movement in Central Asia" based on analysis of Dharmaraksa's corpus.
· Kumarajiva (344-413 CE) - Beginning in the 5th century, this renowned translator made a major effort to translate major sutras and commentaries of Mahayana into Chinese, particularly representing the Madhyamaka tradition.

The Dunhuang Manuscripts

The monastic cave complex at Dunhuang, located along the northern Silk Road, provides the best examples of Chinese Buddhist paintings and manuscripts from this period. A great cache of Chinese manuscripts discovered there—mostly Buddhist texts dating primarily from the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE)—reflects the character of Chinese Buddhism during this golden age. The sutras found at Dunhuang are predominantly Mahayana, alongside numerous treatises on meditation by the Chan school and scriptures of the Pure Land tradition.

The Maritime Route: India to Southeast and East Asia

Recent scholarship has revealed the importance of maritime networks in spreading Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Tantric forms of Mahayana. Between the 8th and 13th centuries CE, Java (in modern Indonesia) became a significant center of Mahayana Buddhist Tantra, as evidenced by artifacts bearing Sanskrit inscriptions in scripts such as Siddhamātṛkā, Nāgarī, and Proto-Bengali/Gauḍī.

Scholars have identified two major "waves" of transmission via maritime routes:

· First wave (8th-9th century) - Rapid spread of Mahayana/Mantrayana Buddhism from the Indian subcontinent to Java and East Asia, occurring in parallel with the diffusion of the Siddhamātṛkā script
· Second wave - Associated with the spread of Tantric Buddhism linking the Indo-Tibetan and East Asian Buddhist worlds, connected with Nāgarī and Proto-Bengali scripts in East Java

毛雪爱

Thank you for compiling such rich materials on Mahayana Buddhism. I learned specific concepts like the Bodhisattva path—vowing to delay enlightenment to liberate all beings—and the teaching of śūnyatā (emptiness), which shows that nothing exists independently. The idea of upāya (skillful means) also stood out, explaining how compassion adapts to different situations. These insights helped me see Mahayana as a deeply practical and inclusive tradition, not just abstract philosophy.

ZZZ

This is such a clear, easy-to-understand introduction to Mahayana Buddhism! It explains the core meaning, origin and ideals perfectly. Thank you so much for organizing and sharing this wonderful summary

吴俣

A Comparative Analysis of Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism: Core Doctrines, Ideals, and Practices

Introduction

Buddhism, after the Buddha’s passing, gradually evolved into two major branches: Theravāda and Mahāyāna. While both traditions trace their origins to the same foundational teachings of the historical Buddha, they have developed distinct doctrinal frameworks, spiritual ideals, and practical approaches to liberation. Theravāda—meaning "the Way of the Elders"—represents the oldest surviving Buddhist school, maintaining close adherence to the Pāli Canon, whereas Mahāyāna—"the Great Vehicle"—emerged around the 1st century CE, emphasizing the universal liberation of all sentient beings. This report compares the two traditions across four key dimensions: core doctrines and scriptural foundations, spiritual ideals (arahant versus bodhisattva), paths to enlightenment, and ritual and meditative practices.

Core Doctrines and Scriptural Foundations

Theravāda Buddhism takes the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) as its definitive and authoritative scripture. This canon, written down in the first century BCE in Sri Lanka, preserves what the tradition regards as the Buddha’s original teachings. Mahāyāna Buddhism, while also respecting the Tripitaka, bases its faith and philosophy primarily on a broader collection of scriptures known as the Mahāyāna Sūtras, including the Diamond Sūtra, Heart Sūtra, Lotus Sūtra, and Avatamsaka Sūtra.

Both traditions are grounded in the foundational principles of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. However, their interpretations of key doctrines diverge significantly. The doctrine of Buddha-nature—the innate enlightened nature of mind—is found in all Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions but was not present in early Buddhism and is not accepted by most contemporary Asian Theravāda traditions. In mainstream Theravāda, consciousness is one of the five aggregates (skandhas), the conditioned aspects of existence which are left behind upon the attainment of nirvāṇa.

The concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) also reveals notable differences between the two traditions. In Mahāyāna, particularly in Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, emptiness is used to denote dependent origination (paticcasamuppāda)—the bond between cause and effect—and is extended to question whether cause and effect themselves possess ultimate reality. In Theravāda, emptiness is understood more narrowly: when defilements of desire, hatred, and delusion are completely eradicated, that state is termed emptiness, corresponding to personal non-self (pudgalanairātmyavāda). Theravāda generally does not accept emptiness in the five aggregates (skandha), sense-bases (āyatana), and elements (dhātu) as the final division.

Spiritual Ideals: Arahant versus Bodhisattva

Perhaps the most defining difference between the two traditions lies in their respective spiritual ideals. Theravāda Buddhism regards the arahant as a being who has completed the path to enlightenment by transcending the ordinary human state and completing the stages of liberating wisdom as spelled out in the Buddha’s teachings and the Visuddhimagga. The arahant is one who has attained nirvāṇa and is liberated from the cycle of birth and death.

Mahāyāna, by contrast, prioritizes the bodhisattva ideal. A bodhisattva is one who, even before attaining enlightenment, adheres to the path of becoming a fully enlightened Buddha for the sake of all beings. Mahāyāna tradition encourages that ordinary people can and should aspire to become bodhisattvas. In Theravāda, the bodhisattva is regarded as an immature stage of a Lord Buddha, referring specifically to the Buddha’s own previous lives before his final enlightenment, rather than a path for all practitioners. As one scholar observes, while Theravāda Buddhists strive for arahantship, Mahāyāna Buddhists aim for the bodhisattva ideal, which emphasizes the importance of great compassion.

The concept of compassion (karuṇā) is central to both traditions but occupies different structural positions. In Theravāda, compassion is developed theoretically and practically in relation to the path leading to the attainment of arahantship or Buddhahood, without substantial contextual difference. In Mahāyāna, compassion has been given a prominent place in the bodhisattva path leading to the attainment of enlightenment and has been developed in a symbolical way, especially in Buddhist ritualistic culture, with Avalokiteśvara as the great symbol of compassion.

Paths to Enlightenment

The Theravāda path is structured around the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkiyādhammā) and the progressive achievement of four stages of awakening: stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner, and arahant. The training follows the threefold discipline of moral precepts (sīla), meditative concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā), rooted in the Buddha’s Middle Way.

The Mahāyāna path, by contrast, centers on the bodhisattva’s career: generating bodhicitta (the mind aimed at awakening for all beings), practicing the six or ten perfections (pāramitās), and progressing through ten stages (bhūmis) toward full Buddhahood. These paths carry differences in practical methods and fruition attainment, yet both lead to the same ultimate goal—nibbāna as the mind of liberation. The harmonization of the arahant and bodhisattva ideals finds expression in the practice of compassion and loving-kindness (mettā), where both traditions emphasize selfless service to others.

Ritual and Meditative Practices

Differences also emerge in ritual emphasis and lay involvement. Mahāyāna traditions place much greater emphasis on rituals, including ceremonies for the deceased. Theravāda, while not devoid of ritual, tends to emphasize individual meditative practice as the primary vehicle for liberation. Both traditions, however, maintain the practice of the six pāramitās (Theravāda recognizes ten pāramitās in later commentarial tradition, while Mahāyāna formally systematizes them as part of the bodhisattva path). Meditation methods differ in emphasis, with Theravāda focusing on Vipassanā (insight meditation) as the direct path to liberation, while Mahāyāna incorporates a broader range of techniques, including tantric practices in its Vajrayāna offshoot.

Conclusion

The differences between Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism reflect not doctrinal contradiction but rather a diversity of interpretations within the Buddhist tradition. As one recent study concludes, this diversity, rather than being a source of division, offers valuable opportunities for philosophical exchange and integration. Such comparative insights can serve as a vital foundation for the creative and sustainable development of Buddhism in the contemporary global context.

Sources

Bretfeld, Sven. “Theravāda Buddhism.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by John Barton. Oxford University Press, 2019.

Jantakeeree, Phra krupairojchayakorn Punyaphalo. “An Analysis of the Practices in Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism.” BUDDHO 4, no. 3 (2025): 1–20.

PannasaraThero, Ven. Hiramadagama. “An Analysis on the Teachings of Mahāyāna and Theravāda Bhikkus about the Emptiness.” International Conference on Sanskrit Studies, Department of Sanskrit, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2017, p. 76.

Tran Thi Binh, Bhikkhuni. “An Analysis on the Paths to Attaining Enlightenment in Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism.” Doctoral dissertation, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2019.

Ven. Hui Xian. “A Comparative Study of the Concept of Karuna in Theravada and Mahayana.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kelaniya, 2010.

Wijethilaka, M.A.I.U. “A Balanced Study on Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Concept and Theravāda Bodhisattva Concept.” International Conference on Sanskrit and Eastern Studies, Department of Sanskrit and Eastern Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2018, p. 52.

“Buddhist Schools: A Comparative Study of the Schools.” (archived resource).

“Difference between revisions of ‘Discover’.” buddhanature.tsadra.org, 2020.