Translation Theory Before the Twentieth Century

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Reading Notes: Chapter 2 – Translation Theory Before the Twentieth Century

Introduction

This chapter traces the development of translation theory from ancient times to the end of the nineteenth century. It highlights key figures and debates that shaped early thinking about translation, particularly the recurring tension between literal (word-for-word) and free (sense-for-sense) translation. The chapter also examines how religious texts, especially the Bible, influenced translation practices and theoretical discussions.

Key Themes and Concepts

1. Early Debates: Literal vs. Free Translation

  ◦ The dichotomy between literal and free translation dates back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St. Jerome (fourth century CE).

  ◦ Cicero, in his work De optimo genere oratorum, advocated for sense-for-sense translation, emphasizing the need to preserve the spirit and force of the original rather than rendering word-for-word.

  ◦ St. Jerome, in his letter to Pammachius (395 CE), famously distinguished between two approaches:

    ▪ Word-for-word translation, which he saw as suitable for sacred texts where even the word order contained mystery.

    ▪ Sense-for-sense translation, which he preferred for general texts, allowing the translator to convey the meaning without being constrained by the original form.

  ◦ This distinction persisted for centuries and became a central issue in translation theory.

2. The Role of Bible Translation

  ◦ Bible translation played a crucial role in shaping translation theory, particularly in the West.

  ◦ St. Jerome’s Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible became a benchmark, but later scholars debated the correctness and fidelity of translations.

  ◦ During the Reformation, figures like Martin Luther emphasized the need to make scriptures accessible to ordinary people, advocating for translations into vernacular languages. Luther’s translation of the Bible into German (1534) was influential and controversial, as it challenged the authority of the Latin Vulgate.

  ◦ The debate over Bible translation often revolved around the balance between accuracy and accessibility.

3. Early Theorists and Their Contributions

  ◦ Dryden (1631–1700): Introduced a threefold classification of translation:

    1. Metaphrase: Word-for-word translation.

    2. Paraphrase: Sense-for-sense translation with some freedom.

    3. Imitation: A free adaptation where the translator departs from the original to create a new work.

Dryden favored paraphrase as the ideal approach, balancing fidelity and fluency.

  ◦ Dolet (1509–1546): In his La manière de bien traduire d’une langue en autre (1540), he proposed five principles for good translation:

    1. The translator must understand the source text’s meaning.

    2. The translator should have perfect knowledge of both source and target languages.

    3. The translator should avoid word-for-word rendering.

    4. The translator should use forms of speech in common usage.

    5. The translator should strive for harmony and rhythm in the target text.

  ◦ Tytler (1747–1814): In his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1791), he outlined three laws:

    1. The translation should give a complete transcript of the original’s ideas.

    2. The style and manner of writing should be the same as the original.

    3. The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.

4. The Influence of Culture and Language

  ◦ As translation theory evolved, attention shifted toward the cultural and linguistic contexts of translation.

  ◦ Scholars began to recognize that translation involved not just linguistic transfer but also cultural adaptation.

  ◦ The chapter notes that early theorists often focused on practical guidelines rather than systematic theories, and their writings were frequently prefaces to translations rather than standalone theoretical works.

5. Challenges and Limitations

  ◦ Early translation theory was often prescriptive, focusing on how translation should be done rather than describing how it is done.

  ◦ The lack of a systematic framework meant that theories were fragmented and sometimes contradictory.

  ◦ The emphasis on literary and religious texts limited the scope of translation theory, neglecting other types of texts (e.g., scientific, commercial).

Conclusion

Chapter 2 demonstrates that translation theory before the twentieth century was dominated by the literal-free dichotomy and heavily influenced by religious translation. Key figures like Cicero, Jerome, Dryden, Dolet, and Tytler laid the groundwork for later developments by emphasizing the importance of meaning, style, and readability. However, their approaches were often pragmatic and lacked the systematic rigor of modern translation studies. This chapter sets the stage for the more theoretical and scientific approaches that emerged in the twentieth century.

Reflection

This historical overview highlights how translation has always been a site of tension between fidelity and creativity, between the source text’s authority and the target audience’s needs. The debates initiated by early theorists continue to resonate in contemporary translation studies, underscoring the enduring complexity of translation as a practice and a discipline.